The United Nations of Drug Addiction and Crime (UNODC) Chief Calls number of drug-related deaths worldwide unacceptable; Global opium cultivation highest since the late-1930s.
Drug use prevalence continues to be stable around
the world, according to the 2015 World Drug Report of the United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). It is estimated that a total of 246 million people
- slightly over 5 per cent of those aged 15 to 64 years worldwide - used an
illicit drug in 2013. Some 27 million people are problem drug users, almost
half of whom are people who inject drugs (PWID). An estimated 1.65 million of
people who inject drugs were living with HIV in 2013. Men are three times more
likely than women to use cannabis, cocaine and amphetamines, while women are
more likely to misuse prescription uploads and tranquillizers.
Speaking on the International Day against Drug Abuse
and Illicit Trafficking, UNODC Executive Director Yury Fedotov noted that,
although drug use is stable around the world, only one out of six problem drug
users has access to treatment. "Women in particular appear to face
barriers to treatment - while one out of three drug users globally is a woman,
only one out of five drug users in treatment is a woman." Additionally, Mr
Fedotov stated that more work needed to be done to promote the importance of
understanding and addressing drug dependence as a chronic health condition which,
like other chronic conditions such as diabetes or hypertension, require
long-term, sustained treatment and care. "There is no quick and simple
remedy for drug dependence and we need to invest in long term, medical
evidence-based solutions."
Drug use and its impact on health.
A stable yet still unacceptably high number of drug
users worldwide continue to lose their lives prematurely, the UNODC Chief said,
with an estimated 187,100 drug-related deaths in 2013. The World Drug Report
includes data - gathered jointly with UNAIDS, WHO and the World Bank - on HIV
prevalence among PWID. In some countries women who inject drugs are more
vulnerable to HIV infection than men and the prevalence of HIV can be higher
among women who inject drugs than among their male counterparts. The number of
new HIV infections among PWID declined by roughly 10 per cent between 2010 and
2013: from an estimated 110,000 to 98,000. However, the World Drug Report also
indicates that many risk factors, including the transmission of infectious diseases
such as HIV and Hepatitis C and the incidences of drug overdoses, cause the
death rate among PWID to be 15 times higher than in the rest of the population.
While data indicate that the use of opiates (heroin
and opium) has remained stable at the global level and cocaine use has declined
overall, the use of cannabis and the non-medical use of pharmaceutical opioids
has continued to rise. Evidence suggests that more drug users are suffering
from cannabis use disorders, and that cannabis may be becoming more harmful, as
reflected in the high proportion of persons seeking first-time treatment in
several regions of the world. Demand for treatment has also increased for
amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) - including methamphetamine and MDMA or
'Ecstasy' - and for new psychoactive substances (NPS), also known as 'legal
highs'.
Illegal drug supply and markets Some 32.4 million
people - or 0.7 per cent of the world's adult population - are users of
pharmaceutical opioids and opiates such as heroin and opium. In 2014, global
potential opium production reached 7,554 tons - the second highest level since
the 1930s, mainly due to its cultivation increasing significantly in
Afghanistan, the main growing country. The global seizures of heroin,
meanwhile, increased by eight per cent, while illicit morphine seizures
decreased by 26 per cent from 2012 to 2013.
While maritime trafficking is not the most widely
used mode of smuggling drugs, law enforcement operations at sea have
potentially the greatest impact as the average volumes of seizures is
proportionally higher. In the period 2009-2014, for instance, the average for
each seizure by sea was 365kg, while by land (road and rail) it was 107kg and
by air 10kg. The 2015 World Drug Report also notes a dynamic shift in the
routes used for smuggling opiates, with Afghan heroin reaching new markets.
Recent seizures suggest that it may have become more common for large shipments
of Afghan heroin to be smuggled across the Indian Ocean into East and Southern
Africa. West Africa continues to be a trans-shipment area for smuggling cocaine
across the Atlantic into Europe, and Eastern Europe is emerging as a transit
area and as a destination for this drug.
This year's World Drug Report indicates that coca
bush cultivation continued to decline in 2013, reaching the lowest level since
1990. With a global prevalence of 0.4 per cent of the adult population, cocaine
use remains high in Western and Central Europe, North America and Oceania
(Australia) though recent data shows a declining trend overall. Cannabis use is
on the rise and continues to be high in West and Central Africa, Western and
Central Europe, Oceania, and North America. Data for 2013 show an increase in
the quantities of cannabis herb and cannabis resin seized worldwide, reaching
5,764 and 1,416 tons respectively.
Methamphetamine dominates the global market for
synthetic drugs, and is expanding in East and South-East Asia. Crystalline
methamphetamine use is increasing in parts of North America and Europe.
Seizures of ATS since 2009 - which have almost doubled to reach over 144 tons
in 2011 and 2012, and remained at a high level in 2013 - also point to a rapid
expansion in the global market. By December 2014, a total of 541 new
psychoactive substances which have negative health impact had been reported by
95 countries and territories - a 20 per cent increase compared to the previous
year's figure of 450.
Alternative Development as a long-term strategy
against illicit crops
The 2015 World Drug Report thematic focus is on
Alternative Development, a long-term strategy aimed at developing alternative
sources of income for farmers dependent on illicit drug cultivation. This
activity is driven by many factors, including marginalization, the lack of
security, and the social and political situations of rural communities.
Alternative Development aims to reduce these vulnerabilities and ultimately
eliminate the cultivation of illicit drugs. More than 40 years of experience
have shown that this approach works when there is a long-term vision, adequate
funding, and the political support to integrate it into a broader development
and governance agenda.
Marketing licit products, land tenure and the
sustainable management and use of land are crucial to the long-term success of
alternative development interventions. "Unfortunately, this year's World
Drug Report also shows that widespread political support for Alternative
Development has not been matched by funding," Mr Fedotov added, as he
urged for shared responsibility against illicit drugs. Funding allocated by
OECD countries to support Alternative Development declined by 71 per cent
between 2009 and 2013, amounting to only 0.1 per cent of global development
assistance. UNODC's Executive Director noted that in the lead up to next year's
UN General Assembly Special Session on the world drug problem, the
international community's post-2015 Development Agenda can help to promote
Alternative Development efforts, with broader interventions addressing drug
supply and demand.
Statement from Mr Yury Fedotov,
Executive Director of UNODC
on International Day against
Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking
26 June 2015
Today is an important day for focusing on the threat
of the production, trafficking and use of illicit drugs. Robust action is needed
to strengthen criminal justice systems, break-up the criminal networks who deal
in misery and suffering, and to nurture health and human rights-based
responses.
People also endure unbelievable pain due to a lack
of controlled medications for medical purposes. Measures must be taken to
ensure that people across the globe can access pain relief where necessary. We
must also do everything to promote greater understanding of drug use as a
social and health condition that calls for, like HIV/AIDS and hepatitis,
sustained prevention, treatment and care.
Science and evidence-based practices must prevail in
the delivery of prevention and treatment of drug use. These approaches are the
foundation for all our efforts. With nearly 200,000 drug-related deaths and with
1.65 million infected with HIV in 2013, access to evidence based prevention and
treatment can sometimes be the difference between life and death.
At present, only one in six people who use drugs
globally has access to treatment. Women face numerous barriers to
treatment-while one in three drug users globally are women, only one in five
drug users in treatment are women.
Africa, particularly West and East Africa, also
remains vulnerable to the trafficking and the consumption of illicit drugs.
These trends are part of organized crime's attack on the security, health and
development of an already-fragile region. The nexus of organized crime and
terrorism-including the apparent role of drug trafficking-is a serious threat.
Opium cultivation in Afghanistan remains a formidable challenge, as is the
production of cocaine in Latin America.
UNODC's own work shows that the balanced approach of
confronting drug supply and drug demand is fundamental. Alternative development
for farmers who cultivate illicit crops also has a major role. Alternative
development promotes environmental protection, supports communities affected by
other forms of crime, including wildlife and forest crime, and empowers women.
Countries must also work hard to protect the promise
of future generations. Young people should be encouraged to undertake new
initiatives that can develop aspirations and opportunities, as well as
dignity.
The UN General Assembly Special Session on the world
drug problem, to be held in April 2016, can assist in the exchanges of ideas
and lessons learned, and will do much to help achieve the goals set out in the
Political Declaration and Plan of Action by 2019.
On the International Day against Drug Abuse and
Illicit Trafficking, and ahead of the UN Summit on Sustainable Development, it
is important to remember that illicit drugs undermine the environment, security
and development. Countering their impact using a balanced and human rights
based approach is vital to protect and promote the health and welfare of humankind.
Drug addicts spend Tk 70cr everyday in
Bangladesh
Manzurul Alam Mukul:
When the `International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking` is
being observed in Bangladesh like elsewhere in the world today (Friday) then it
is unfortunate that about six million who are drug addicted in Bangladesh spend
over Tk 700 million (Tk 70 crore) every
day on illegal narcotics.
Basically, drug abuse or substance abuse refers to
the use of certain chemicals for the purpose of creating pleasurable effects on
the brain.
Drug abuse is a major public health problem
globally. According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), between 149
million and 271 million people worldwide use the illicit drugs such as cocaine,
cannabis, hallucinogens, opiates and sedative hypnotics. The problem has been
increasing at alarming rates in recent days, especially among young adults
under the age of 30.
It is a causal factor in more than 200 disease and
injury conditions; these majorly include several types of cancer, hemorrhagic
stroke and hypertensive heart disease, cardiovascular diseases, liver
cirrhosis, neuropsychiatric diseases, etc. According to a report, illegal drug
use causes about a quarter of a million deaths per year, and use is highest in
developed countries.
The harmful use of drug can also result in harm to
other people, such as family members, friends, co-workers and strangers.
Moreover, the harmful use of drug results in a significant health, social and
economic burden on society at large.
In recent years, drug addiction has significantly
increased in the South Asian countries including Bangladesh. Hundreds of
thousands of youths across Bangladesh are taking drugs on a large scale,
sending our society on the verge of ruin.
Daily newspapers and televisions are full of reports of drug network
having a turnout of 1 crore (tens of millions) of taka. This agent of human
devastation has spread its tentacles to every nock and corner.
There are three types of drugs available in
Bangladesh. Opium (like, heroin, phensidyl); Cannabis (ganja, chorosh);
sleeping pill (tranquilizer, seduxene). The most common drugs used in
Bangladesh are stimulants. The teens are ignorant about variation of drugs.
Some of them cannot tell the difference between stimulants and marijuana. There
are a large number of young using drugs.
DNC intelligence sources say heroin is the deadliest
of drugs in Bangladesh. In recent times, Yaba has gained in popularity and has
become a `fashionable` drug. Cough syrup Phensidyl has remained the most
popular among the masses because of its low price and easy availability.
According to the police and other sources, the
number of addicts in Bangladesh is more than six million who spend over Tk 700
million (70 crore) every day on illegal narcotics.
A study conducted by the Journal of Health,
Population and Nutrition (JHPN) of the International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research Bangladesh (ICDDRB) shows that in the capital Dhaka, 79.4
percent of the users are male and 20.6 percent are female. The study finds that 64.8 percent drug users
in the country are unmarried while 56.1percent either students or unemployed,
95.4% percent users smokers and 85.7 percent get into drugs under the influence
of friends; 65.8 percent addicted to various codeine-containing cough syrups.
According sources with different health facilities,
nowadays nearly 10 per cent of outpatients in hospitals are cases of drug
addiction involving heroin, ganja and phensidyl.
The trend of consuming drugs is higher in youth and
teenagers between 15-30 years of age and come from all strata of the society.
Students are the most victim of drug abuse that lowers standards of education
and attendance at schools and colleges.
There are a number of reasons why a teenager might try drugs. The
leading causes include curiosity and excitement through use, despair and
frustration for continuous failure in works or economic insolvency, some are addicts because they try to follow
the western culture of drugs and enjoyment of life, poverty, easy access to
drugs, surrounding atmosphere, estranged in love and even mental stress due to
family problem.
According to police sources, more than 100,000
people are directly involved with illegal drug trade and supplying. Peddlers
prefer women and children for carrying and selling drugs because it is easier
for them to evade law enforcers, sources said.
Many experts believe that Bangladesh is often used
as a transit point for international drug trafficking, making the country
vulnerable to drug abuse. Bangladesh is
situated in the central point between golden crescent (Pakistan, India,
Afghanistan and Iran) in terms of geographical location. And it is also surrounded by the major drug
producing countries of Asia, many of which are strengthening their narcotics
and stepping up enforcement measures.
Traffickers who supply drugs in the markets of Northern America, Africa
and Europe are making their shipments through Dhaka, Chittagong, Comilla,
Khulna, Jessore and other routes in Bangladesh.
So, in near future, Bangladesh will face a
catastrophe if the alarming drug abuse is not effectively checked through
extensive motivation and prevention.
About the irrational behavior and drug addiction,
many social scientists blame the examples set by their elders. Firstly, parents
and elders who drink and smoke are, in effect, telling their children and
juniors that it is a socially acceptable behaviour. Consequently they may have
a similar view towards illegal drugs, even if their parents and guardians are
against their use.
In addition, drug use shown on television, films,
magazines and public displays can only attract children, if not confuse them,
about the serious health-hazards that are associated with drug abuse.
Roles of the department of narcotics control,
police, RAB and BGB are not up to the satisfactory level.
June 26 is the International Day against Drug Abuse
and Illicit Trafficking. Established by the United Nations General Assembly in
1987, this day serves as a reminder of the goals agreed to by Member States of
creating an international society free of drug abuse.
The theme for this year’s celebration is dubbed
‘Let’s Develop our Lives, our Communities without Drugs’.
So, it is need to execute properly execution of the
related law against the spreading of drugs throughout the world including
Bangladesh. Side-by-side all conscious people irrespective of classes and
professions including parents, teachers, religious and political leaders,
players and sports personalities will come ahead to create social awareness and
expedite the anti-drug movement to save our future generation from the
aggression of the drugs.
risingbd/DHAKA/June 26, 2015
Sex
and the single girl, Bangladeshi-style
The result of restricting the acceptability of sex
to marriage is not fewer girls having sex at a younger age, it is more girls
getting married at a younger age
There are few issues which are so apparently cut and
dried as the age of marriage for women.
It seems self-evident that lowering the age from 18
to 16, as the government proposes to do, is a poor idea, and I hope that the
government listens to the legions of experts and critics of the proposed
legislation, and that good sense prevails.
The argument that the age of marriage is 16 in many
other countries such as the UK (with parental consent) is irrelevant to the
case at hand.
The UK does not have a problem with early marriage,
Bangladesh does. If the marriage age in the UK were raised to 18 it would make
very little difference and impact very few lives.
But in Bangladesh, the proposed change in the law
would impact millions and have far-reaching consequences, none of them good.
At a very basic level there is a lot of data out
there to show that the later a woman gets married, the later she will typically
have her first child, and that this is correlated to a raft of desirable social
outcomes, both for the woman and the child.
The later women get married and give birth,
typically, the higher their educational attainment, better their earning
prospects over the course of their life-time, and the more likely they are to
be happy and healthy throughout their lives. This much is incontrovertible.
If there is one thing we should be encouraging women
to do to benefit both themselves and society as a whole, it would be to marry
and have children later.
This would also have a major impact on the country’s
population problem. We have done a great job in reducing the average number of
children each woman has to just above two, leading to a population growth rate
of 1.2% per year. Not bad at all.
The big problem we face, however, continues to be
the age at which these births occur. The math is simple. Compare the difference
between a country where a woman typically has her first child at age 20 with
one where the average age for this is 25.
In this scenario, even if women in both countries
bear the same number of children, over a period of 100 years the first country
will see five generations and the second only four, leading to massive
difference in population growth over the course of the century.
The average age of first child-birth in Bangladesh
is around 18. You do the math. The later first child-birth happens, the better
for the woman, the child, and the country.
And of course, the earlier women get married, the
earlier that they will have their first child.
There are a lot of social pressures for parents to
marry their girls off at a young age, but the government should be helping them
resist this pressure, not adding to it.
If the government started an awareness campaign and
followed up with tough prosecution for offenders, it could send a stern message
and really cut down on the incidence of child marriage.
Now it is true that many parents wish to marry their
girls off early so as to ward of the threat of harassment, rape, or assault,
which become serious and pressing concerns as soon as girls reach puberty, if
not before.
But in lowering the marriage age, the government is
solving the wrong problem, and it should instead focus its resources on
protecting girls from this kind of predatory behavior so that they would not
have to seek the perceived shelter of marriage to be free of it.
It is precisely because girls in their early teens
are considered marriageable that they become the object of this kind of
unwelcome attention, and often the harassment is used as a prelude to demand
their hand in marriage, with parents having no other recourse but to accede.
This is the kind of abuse that will only get worse
if the government lowers the marriage age and continues to do nothing about policing
marriage at an even lower age, instead turning a blind eye.
In addition to keeping the marriage age at 18, the
government should be cracking down both on under-age marriage and the kind of
predatory criminal behavior that makes parents think it is their only recourse.
A little government attention to this matter would go a long way.
Of course the real elephant in the room here is the
social stigma which is attached to pre-marital sex and pregnancy. One reason
parents are so keen to marry their girls off before the age of 18, and many
girls themselves wish to marry before then, is the strict societal taboo
against pre-marital sex and the disastrous consequences of unmarried pregnancy.
We need to recognise that girls may well wish to be
sexually active in their teenage years and that the best way to address this
issue is to educate them to have responsible sex and to ensure that the costs
of doing so are not so ruinous.
Many people might be appalled at such a thought, but
the result of restricting the acceptability of sex to marriage is not fewer
girls having sex at a younger age, it is more girls getting married at a
younger age.
But if we are not willing to seriously grapple with
and come to terms with the issue of teenage girls having sex and the high costs
of pre-marital sex in our society, then the government’s proposal is not as
outlandish as it seems.
WHO reports about Africa 2000-2015
This executive summary highlights key facts from the
progress report on the Global health sector response to HIV, 2000-2015.
Successful HIV responses are not yet universal, but they are common enough to
have made a huge impact in the past 15 years.
The number of adults and children newly infected
with HIV globally declined by 35% in 2000–2014.
The number of people dying from HIV-related causes
declined by 24% in 2000–2014 and by over 40% since 2004, the peak year.
HIV treatment reached almost 16 million people in
mid-2015 – more than 11 million of them in the African Region, where only about
11 000 people had been receiving treatment in 2000.
Millennium
Development Goal 6, which called for halting and beginning to reverse the
spread of HIV by 2015, was achieved, and the HIV response contributed to
significantly reducing child mortality (Millennium Development Goal 4) and
maternal mortality (Millennium Development Goal 5).
Global Summary of HIV
Epidemic in Women and Children, 2014
|
||||
Global
|
South Asia
|
%
|
||
Estimated number of
women (15+) living with HIV
|
17,400,000
|
800,000
|
5
|
|
Estimated number of
pregnant women living with HIV
|
1,500,000
|
36,000
|
2
|
|
Estimated number of
children (<15) living with HIV
|
2,600,000
|
140,000
|
5
|
|
Estimated number of
children (<15) newly infected with HIV
|
220,000
|
14,000
|
6
|
|
Estimated number of
children (<15) dying of AIDS-related causes
|
150,000
|
9,000
|
6
|
|
Source: UNAIDS 2014
HIV and AIDS estimates, July 2015
|
||||
HIV and AIDS estimates (2015) In Bangladesh
HIV/AIDS
Situation of Bangladesh
Although Bangladesh continues to be a low prevalence area, it is surrounded by high prevalence countries (High prevalence of HIV/AIDS in neighboring India). We however must not adopt a complacent attitude in respect as our country has all the determinants for an explosive outbreak of HIV/AIDS epidemic. Curses of poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, proximity of Bangladesh to the so-called 'Golden Triangle' & high prevalence of STDs, make our country seriously vulnerable. Drug use increases the HIV risk and can start very early-for example, glue-sniffing by youngsters living or working on the streets. The danger of becoming infected with HIV by sharing injecting equipment is well known, and real. Unemployment, slum housing, family fragility, frequent cross-border movement of people, lack of information, unsafe blood transfusion, physical and sexual abuse-that create a "risk environment" of violence for many young people in the region. In addition increased number of migrant workers, unsafe practice in health service, unsafe sex practice etc. movement of population, less use of condom, polygamy, homosexuality, extra-marital relations, further increases the susceptibility.
In
Bangladesh, the intravenous drug users (IDU) are the most potential carriers of
HIV/AIDS among the vulnerable groups in the country. The fourth round of
national HIV and behavioural surveillance report showed that the HIV infection
rate among the injection drug users (IDUs) is now 4 per cent, up from 2.5 per
cent previously which is just short of the 5 per cent mark of a concentrated
epidemic. About 93.4 per cent IDUs in central Bangladesh admitted that they
share same syringe while taking drugs. Even they use the same syringe several
times for taking drug.
UNCDP
estimates that between 500,000 and 1,00,000 people in Bangladesh are addicted
to drugs. Although HIV rates are comparatively lower (one per cent) among the
sex workers but Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) rates are still quite high
(20 per cent) among this group.
On the other hand, brothel-based female sex
workers in Bangladesh report the highest turnover of clients than anywhere in
Asia. After several investigate on sex industries have identified more then
1,00,000 various category commercial and non-commercial sex workers in Bangladesh
who are most of them illiterate. Some female brothel sex workers have an
average of 20-25 clients per week, Female hotel sex worker meet an average of
44 clients in a week, the highest number of clients in commercial sex than any
other counties in South-East Asian region. Moreover the residence sex workers
and floating sex workers are present in large number though the precise
distribution and prevalence is still unknown. By a study ‘Rainbow Nari O Shishu
Kallyan Foundation’ also found that a substantial proportion of some young and
single textile, garment workers, tea garden female workers, house key-per
supplement their low wages by occasional prostitution. Consensual sex or
non-commercial sex exists in rural societies, particularly when husbands are absent
for a long time.
Meanwhile,
most of the people of country are unaware about the deadly disease. The
1999-2000 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey found that only 31 per cent
of married women and 50 per cent of newly married men had heard of AIDS. Over
90 per cent of rickshaw pullers could not identify a single method of HIV
prevention.
Certainly,
adolescent girls’ prostitution is booming in Bangladesh. Adolescent girls
engage or are forced into prostitution for trafficking or socio-economic reasons.
But in addition to sexual exploitation, they face all sorts of violence.
Rainbow Nari O Shishu Kallyan Foundation carried out a recent field
investigation, the research confirmed that adolescents girls’ prostitution is
widespread in Bangladesh, although hidden at first sight from foreigners,
especially in Dhaka city. Adolescent girls involved in prostitution are to be
found in residence homes converted into brothels or in hotels. The majority are
aged 15-18.
According
to the National AIDS Committee and surveillance team members and experts, the
rate is quite alarming as it remains one per cent less than the highest five
per cent HIV epidemic index. The rate of HIV/AIDS remains less than one per
cent among the other vulnerable groups -- truckers, migrant workers, gay,
hijras (hermaphrodites), professional blood donors, heroin smokers and, hotel,
brothel and street based commercial sex workers.
A
recent survey in Bangladeshi track drivers by Rainbow Nari O Shishu Kallyan
Foundation, found that 80% track driver in Bangladesh have no clear concept of
HIV or AIDS. But 90% respond it is a deadly disease. Bangladesh is a country
rounded off three sides by HIV/AIDS bloom neighboring country India and the
existence of the Bay of Bengal on the other side. Every day a number large of
people cross border movement take place both officially and also illegally. Due
to reason of that great chance to spread out HIV/AIDS in Bangladesh.
Overview
of the sex industry
Commercial
sex work is a growth industry. According to an analysis of data from the
National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles by Ward et al. [1], the
proportion of men who reported paying women for sex more than doubled from 2.0
to 4.2% between 1990 and 2000. There has also been a diversification of sexual
services, into areas beyond the traditional exchange of sex for money. Erotic
dancing which entails less direct sexual contact between worker and client and
other private sex work advertised on the Internet have become increasingly
prevalent [2,3].
The
sex industry is diverse in the ethnic origins of sex workers, many of whom are
economic migrants and include women trafficked and coerced into sex work by
organized crime networks [4]. There has been a demographic shift in the origin
of commercial sex workers (CSW) working in west London between 1985 and 2002,
with a reduction in the proportion with British nationality from 75 to 37%, and
a corresponding increase seen in workers from the transitional economies of
Eastern Europe and Russia (1–20%) and developing countries, particularly Asia
(5–27%) [5]. The Poppy Project, in a survey of female sex workers across
London, identified 93 different ethnic groups among women working in off-street
premises, of whom only 19% were British [6]. This influx of individuals from
many countries inevitably generates language and cultural barriers in access to
health and other services.
The
pathways that lead people into commercial sex work are also varied. At one end
of the spectrum are those who work autonomously, undertake sex work by choice
and are well organized with respect to their sexual health and accessing
services [7,8]. These workers may have entered sex work for a specific reason
(e.g. to fund higher education costs, pay debts or to cover family expenses), may
be intermittent or opportunistic in their involvement in sex work [9] and
succeed in exiting the industry at a time of their choice [10]. Others make a
career decision to work in the sex industry and may enjoy a high level of job
satisfaction and independence [11]. In contrast, are those who are driven into
commercial sex work through drug addiction or coercion, and have little
autonomy. These workers, including women sold for the purposes of trafficking,
are highly vulnerable and have little prospect of leaving the industry
unassisted [4,12]. Between these extremes lie the majority, who work in the
industry due to varying degrees of economic necessity and choice [8].
There
are significant differences between indoor work and street work, in terms of
harm and risk to health. Street sex work is more likely to be linked with drugs
[13,14] and many in the UK have entered the industry primarily out of the need
to maintain expensive drug addictions to heroine and crack cocaine. In this
setting, sex may either be exchanged directly for drugs, or drugs may be
supplied by the pimp in exchange for earnings [15]. As a result, they are
likely to be exposed to much higher levels of violence and abuse from clients
and pimps than those who work indoors [16]. Pressure from clients for
unprotected sex combined with drug dependency and competition among workers for
clients lead street workers to offer, or be persuaded to accept unprotected
vaginal or anal sex for more money [3,8,17]. Furthermore, street workers are
often homeless, living in squats or drug dens, which may in turn have an
adverse impact on health through the acquisition of tuberculosis and other
respiratory diseases [4,13].
In
contrast, workers who are based in off-street premises, whether in flats,
saunas or massage parlours, are less exposed to the risk of violence and will
generally work with a maid or a manager who can vet clients, look after money
and provide security [18]. Indoor workers are more likely to have autonomy in
working hours and the disposal of their income, and are less likely to be
supporting an addictive drug habit or to be under the control of pimps [19]. As
a result, these workers are not compelled to agree to unsafe sexual practices
for higher earnings, and use condoms with all clients [20]. Trafficked women
and children who have been groomed and coerced into sex work are important
exceptions to the paradigm that indoor sex work offers greater protection [4].
Here the individuals concerned are hidden from view to avoid detection by police
and social services, and may frequently be moved between locations or across
international borders.
Finally,
sex work is not gender specific. The existence of a market for male sex workers
who offer services to male or (less commonly) female clients is well recognized
[21,22]. Transexual and transgendered individuals also participate in the sex
industry, and have their own particular needs [8,23].
Research
into commercial sex work is hampered by several methodological challenges.
First, the study populations are usually small and unrepresentative due to
problems gaining access to sex workers and establishing trust. As a result,
researchers are reliant on individuals who attend sexual health clinics
voluntarily, who may be poorly representative of the local CSW population,
particularly the more vulnerable groups. Second, there is likely to be
reporting bias in response to questionnaires or structured interviews on topics
such as condom use and drug habits [24,25]. Third, the heterogeneity of CSW
with respect to adherence to safer sex, drug misuse and local factors such as
pimping and policing means that generalizability of results may be limited.
Finally, CSW represent an unstable population both temporally and
geographically, which means prospective studies are difficult to conduct
without the loss of significant numbers of subjects, which itself may bias
results.
Risks
to health
There
are four main categories of health risks faced by workers in the commercial sex
industry. These relate to the acquisition of sexually transmitted infections
(STI), harm through violence from clients or pimps, factors associated with the
use of drugs and mental health.
Acquisition
of STI
Bacterial
(syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhoea and Mycoplasma genitalium) and viral STI
[human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis A, B and C, herpes simplex virus
(HSV) and human papilloma virus] are acquired mainly through unprotected
vaginal, anal or oral intercourse. Some STI, such as chlamydia and gonorrhoea,
cause mucosal inflammation, while others, including primary syphilis and HSV,
produce ulceration. HIV, hepatitis B and C and syphilis are also transmitted
through injecting drug use. Individuals who are both CSW and intravenous drug
users have a dual risk of acquiring these infections.
There
are numerous long-term sequelae of STI. Chronic infection with gonorrhoea and
chlamydia causes pelvic inflammatory disease leading to higher rates of ectopic
pregnancy and infertility. Tertiary syphilis causes neurological and
cardiovascular complications. Chronic infection with hepatitis B or C can give
rise to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, while cervical and other
anogenital neoplasia are associated with certain subtypes of the human
papilloma virus. HIV infection causes progressive immunodeficiency which in
turn leads to life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers.
Co-infection with HIV and hepatitis B or C is associated with a worse prognosis
than with either alone. The majority of STI can be acquired congenitally and produce
high levels of morbidity in neonates and infants.
It
has generally been assumed that commercial sex work facilitates the spread of
STI in a population [26], but research suggests that this may only apply in
certain settings such as the developing world and street sex work, where condom
use may not be widely practised [27,28]. The overall prevalence of HIV among UK
CSW ranges between 0 and 3.5% [29] while a study from 11 European centres found
an HIV prevalence of 1.5% among non-injecting CSW but 31.8% among injecting
drug users [30]. A relatively low level of STI in female CSW attending a clinic
in west London was also reported [31,32], and attributed to a high level of
condom use. Infection rates were still above those for the general population,
but this was largely explained by indirect factors such as injecting drug use
and having unprotected sex with non-commercial partners who may themselves be
injecting drug users [20]. This suggests that even in the context of drugs and
street work, it is possible for workers to negotiate barrier protection with
clients given the necessary skills.
Harm
through violence
Physical
violence is perhaps the greatest single threat to the health and well being of
CSW. According to Kinnell [33], 87 CSW have been murdered in Britain since
1990. A questionnaire survey of 115 street or outdoor and 125 indoor CSW
working in Glasgow, Edinburgh and Leeds conducted by Church et al. [16] found
that outdoor workers were twice as likely to report violence such as beatings,
stabbing, rape and robbery, than indoor workers. Outdoor workers in Glasgow had
a six times greater risk of violence than indoor CSW in Edinburgh. Only
one-third of assaults were reported to the police. Among street-based CSW,
economic pressures, use of heroine or crack cocaine while working, not being
able to control the location for sex and having sex in the client's car were
all strong predictors of violence. Norton-Hawk [17] also found that being under
the control of a pimp increased the likelihood of violence, partly because of
the pressure to earn extra money. These women were more likely to be single, to
have come from dysfunctional families and never to have held a legal job. In
general, licensed brothel workers felt more secure than in the street setting owing
to the closer proximity of fellow workers, the provision of security systems
and the right to legal protection [13,34].
Factors
associated with use of drugs
Intravenous
drug use is associated with multiple medical complications, including
cellulitis and abscesses at injecting sites, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary
embolism, bacterial endocarditis, septic embolization, rehab domyolysis and
death through overdose or contamination with toxins. Sharing needles and
syringes contributes to the risk for acquiring HIV, hepatitis B and C and
syphilis, and this accounts for the majority of infections among CSW who are
supporting opiate addictions [35]. Other drugs such as cocaine, crack cocaine
and crystal methamphetamine can lead to cardiovascular and neurological disease
and immunosuppressant.
In
general, CSW who inject drugs exhibit higher levels of risk-taking behaviour
compared with non-CSW, including higher injection frequency, use of crack
cocaine, higher rates of sharing injecting equipment and use of shooting
galleries [14,36,37]. HIV prevalence was 32% among CSW and 21% in the non-CSW
group (14). Non-injecting drug use, particularly smoking crack cocaine, has
been implicated as an indirect risk factor for STI transmission through
impairment of judgement, leading sex workers to engage in higher risk
behaviours than non-crack users [15,23,38].
Mental
health
There
is a strong relationship between mental ill-health and risk-taking behaviours
(drug use or sexual practices) among CSW [39]. Several studies have reported
higher levels of psychological distress levels in CSW, than a non-CSW control
group, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as age, previous rape
and crack cocaine use [37,40,41].
What
remains unclear is the relative contribution to the distress of working as a
sex worker versus pre-existing psychological trauma as a result of drug use,
previous childhood abuse, domestic violence or imprisonment. Van wizen beck
[42] partly addressed this issue in an assessment of ‘burnout’ among 96 CSW in
Holland, using measures of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal
competence in comparison with a group of female nurses. Increases in the first
two were attributed to factors such as coercion, violence, negative social
reactions, lack of control with clients and inadequate support from managers.
Personal competence was positively associated with having a professional
attitude towards sex work and with support from colleagues and managers. It was
concluded that the conditions under which sex work are conducted have a greater
influence on the worker's psychological well being than the nature of the work
itself.
Male
and transgender sex workers
The
term ‘transgender’ refers both to transsexuals, who display many of the
physical attributes of the opposite sex while retaining their natural
genitalia, and individuals who have undergone gender reassignment surgery. In
terms of commercial sex work, both groups are usually male-to-female
transgenders. Transvestites, men who dress as women but do not undergo hormonal
or surgical modification, are not considered here in the context of sex work.
Male
CSW
Male
CSW may be homosexual, bisexual or heterosexual in orientation, and although
typically viewed as servicing male clients, a significant proportion also
engage in sex work with female clients [21,22].
In
a study of 94 male CSW attending sexual health clinics in Sydney, 6.5% of the
male CSW were HIV positive, compared with 0.4% of the female CSW and 24% of
non-CSW homosexual men, but 21, 5 and 12%, respectively, had anogenital warts
[21]. Injecting drug use was twice as common among male CSW than in the other
two groups and was significantly higher among workers who reported female
non-paying clients than among those whose non-commercial partners were male.
Overall, male CSW had significantly more non-paying partners than female CSW.
Eighty-six per cent of male CSW reported 100% condom use with clients in the
past 3 months compared with 88% of female CSW. In contrast, only half reported
consistent condom use with non-paying partners.
Male-to-female
transgender CSW
Transgenders
form a special group of sex workers in terms of their risks and needs.
Discrimination in conventional job markets leads a high proportion to engage in
commercial sex work [43]. Incentives to earn money are perhaps also higher in
this group compared to other groups of sex workers due to the costs of gender
reassignment surgery and hormones used to enhance feminine physical attributes.
Misuse
of other drugs is high among transgenders, and reported rates of HIV, hepatitis
and syphilis are correspondingly increased [44]. Transgenders also report high
rates of needle sharing, both for illicit drugs and for hormones.
Post-operative transgenders may engage in both vaginal and anal intercourse,
and it has been suggested that surgically constructed vaginas are more
susceptible to transmission of HIV and other STI [45]. Transgenders are heavily
stigmatized in society, even by other sex workers, and are at high risk both of
violence from clients and of being coerced into providing unsafe sexual
services for more money [46,47].
The
Home Office published a document in 2004 entitled ‘Paying the Price’ [48] which
proposed policies for tackling the commercial sex industry. Emphasis was placed
on disrupting sex markets to achieve an overall reduction in street work,
taking measures to protect communities from the associated ‘nuisance’ and
reducing all forms of exploitation in the industry. Following a period of
public consultation, the government document ‘A Co-ordinated Prostitution
Strategy’ [49] was published in January 2006.
Responses
to both documents have been generally unfavourable. Boynton and Cusick [50]
point out that the government's failure to address health and human rights for
sex workers will undermine efforts to reduce exploitation and minimize harm.
For example, it remains illegal for more than one individual to sell sex from
indoor premises at one time. As maids are to be classified as ‘controlling
prostitution’, sex workers will be compelled to operate alone despite the
increased vulnerability that this entails [8]. The government's refusal to
license indoor workplaces also acts as a barrier to ensuring that such premises
conform with employment and health and safety legislation, and do not harbour
children or trafficked women.
The
UK Network of Sex Work Projects pointed to the negative effects of
anti-kerb-crawling legislation and the use of Anti-Social Behaviour Orders
against street workers in pushing the industry further underground.
Criminalization affects access to services and the job market while also
hampering the efforts of outreach workers in delivering services to those who
are most vulnerable. Furthermore, disrupting demand increases competition
between workers and encourages more risky behaviour. The UK Network of Sex Work
Projects (UKNSWP) also criticized the government for ignoring the benefits that
would result from regulating off-street premises and improving conditions for
the many who work in the industry out of choice.
The
UKNSWP calls for managed zones for street sex work, pointing to the success of
projects in Holland and Cologne. By relocating street work to non-residential
areas, managed zones improve safety for workers, build good relations with the
police, allow regular access to services and reduce the interdependence between
street work and drugs. Such proposals were well received in consultations with
street workers throughout the UK [8].
Assessment
of needs
Service
provision to this highly heterogeneous population needs to be tailored to the
local needs expressed by sex workers themselves, which are shaped by the
individual's own professional, behavioural and social context. For example,
street workers may perceive drug dependency or the associated violence from
dealers and pimps as their principal problem, while for others, the main
requirement may be for suitable housing or childcare. Several surveys of female
CSW in London have found that demand was greatest for housing, followed by
sexual health and substance misuse services. In contrast, among those wishing
to exit the industry, provision of safe house and hostel accommodation,
counselling services and peer support groups were highlighted. Other gaps in
service provision included dedicated exiting programmes, outreach services,
treatment for depression, support following sexual assault, education
programmes and community safety strategies [19,24,51].
It
is important to recognize that many sex workers are reluctant to seek help
through mainstream services such as genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinics and
general practitioners for fear of stigma and disapproval [19,23,51]. Service
providers must therefore be prepared to overcome these barriers and seek to
establish trust by providing surroundings in which confidentiality,
non-judgemental attitudes and sympathetic listening predominate [7].
De-stigmatized delivery of service is more likely to be encountered in settings
dedicated to sex workers, rather than through piecemeal access to mainstream
services for sexual health, drug rehabilitation or housing.
Harm
reduction
Services
aimed at harm reduction need to address the four main areas of risk discussed,
namely, sexual health, physical violence, drug use and mental health.
Sexual
health services should include screening for, and treatment of STI, provision
of condoms, and education to reduce disease transmission. Mallory and
Gabrielson [3] reported that ∼8-
to 12-h training is required to impart lasting safer sex behaviours. Effective
measures include practice with condom application, and the development of
assertiveness and negotiating skills with clients through role play [52].
Sexual health services should also offer reproductive health care, including
cervical screening, family planning, management of gynaecological problems and
referral for more specialist services such as colposcopy, termination of
pregnancy and psychosexual counselling [53].
Reducing
the risk of violence towards sex workers depends on a range of strategies that
includes safety advice, awareness of potentially dangerous clients, training in
assertiveness and negotiating skills and distribution of ‘dodgy punter’
registers based on physical descriptions provided by CSW [7,8,48,54].
Harm
reduction in relation to drug use is critically important as a means to protect
the individual from the risks of both infection and violence. Needle and
syringe exchanges reduce the need to share equipment and visit shooting
galleries, and can provide the opportunity for education in safer injecting
practices [14,37]. Drug rehabilitation and methadone programmes, as well as
those which treat addiction to crack cocaine, are therefore an essential means
by which the individual can withdraw from the drug culture [23].
Sex
workers who have experienced violence or abuse in early life, or who continue
to be exposed either through their work or in their non-commercial
partnerships, are likely to suffer in varying degrees from conditions such as
depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. These problems require careful
evaluation and counselling [3,55] backed up by practical measures such as the
provision of emergency housing.
Peer
support is recognized as an important means by which important information
about safer sex and the reduction of risk from violent clients can be passed
between workers [23,56,57]. CSW who act as peer educators are likely to be more
successful than health care workers in promoting condom use with both
commercial and non-paying partners [24].
Drop-in
clinics and outreach
Most
dedicated services for CSW concentrate on sexual health, either in the form of
clinics or through outreach providers visiting both indoor premises and street
locations [24]. The principal role of outreach is to distribute condoms,
provide clean needles and syringes, offer information and advice on safer sex
and sexual health and refer sex workers to clinic-based services for STI
screening and other health needs [7]. Advice may also be offered on safety,
access to drug programmes, housing services or legal assistance. One successful
pilot scheme in Liverpool involved engaging a wide range of CSW including male
workers. A nurse practitioner established links with escort agencies, indoor
premises, street workers and a number of outreach projects in order to build
trust and provide fast-track clinic appointments for both workers and their
partners [51].
Drop-in
services for CSW are typically based either in general GUM clinics or in
outreach settings, such as general practitioner (GP) surgeries in areas where
the sex industry is concentrated. Donegan et al. [58] found specific services
offered by 25 GUM departments in the UK providing various combinations of
outreach workers, drop-in clinics and outreach clinics. Cooper et al. [59]
identified 81 dedicated services for CSW across the UK in a 1995 survey, and
124 in 1999. Most provided outreach and were geared towards harm reduction.
Another
model is the Working Women's Project in Streatham, South London run by
Mainliners, and based in a primary health care centre. Staff include a GP and
female nurses from the nearby Caldecot Centre for Sexual Health at Kings
College Hospital. The project provides a full range of services, including
sexual health screening and information, pregnancy testing, referral for
abortion and other gynaecological problems, contraceptive advice, information
on safer sex and drug use, free condoms, a needle exchange, general medical
care, an ‘ugly mugs’ list, emotional support and advice on legal issues.
Referral can also be made to other services including counselling, housing and
drug programmes.
Exit
strategies
Workers
who wish to leave the sex industry may face multiple obstacles depending on
their level of vulnerability [12]. For example, street-based CSW may need
protection from pimps or violent partners through the emergency provision of
safe houses or shelters, referral to drug rehabilitation programmes or
counselling services to address mental health issues. Low educational level,
learning difficulties and a criminal record can also act as barriers to the
reintegration of sex workers into the non-sex workforce [7].
Exit
programmes therefore need to be holistic and tailored to individual
vulnerabilities, which is best achieved through coordinated referral to the
relevant agencies and the provision of long-term follow-up [8]. Clark and
Squires [7] proposed the establishment of Vulnerable Adult Protection
programmes in which the coordinating role would be taken on by a key worker. In
such a model, an initial intervention to provide safe house accommodation could
be followed by referral to drug rehabilitation or sexual health services, and
ultimately lead to training in new skills and assistance with job seeking. The
Sex Workers in Sexual Health Project in Coventry reported on 10 CSW who had
successfully exited over 2 years [60], but few services exist owing to funding
constraints and lack of multi-agency co-operation, with the majority
concentrating on harm reduction rather than exiting.
Sex
workers in the UK will continue to face multiple hazards for as long as the
occupation continues to be seen as a policing problem rather than a welfare
issue. Clear distinctions need to be drawn between coerced and non-coerced sex
work, and recognition given to the heterogeneity and differing needs of this
population in order to be able to target interventions appropriately.
Decriminalization would open the way for the licensing of indoor premises and
the establishment of managed zones for street sex work, which would in turn
provide a stable setting for the effective implementation of strategies for
harm reduction and exiting. Until such a time, however, existing services will
continue to be fragmented and under-funded to the detriment both of sex workers
themselves and the wider community.
Human
rights: Bangladesh’s LGBT Community and the UPR 2015
Bangladesh
will be subject to Universal Periodic Review (UPR) on April 29. The UPR is a
mechanism of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) that will examine
Bangladesh’s overall human rights performance during the last four and a half
years. It will be the second UPR cycle, following the first one in 2009.
The
UPR aims at improving the human rights situation on the ground in each of the
193 United Nations (UN) member states. Each UN member state is subjected to this
review every four and a half years. The reason UPR is important for Bangladesh,
or any state for that matter, is the opportunity for stakeholders to submit
their own reports along with the one from the government. The mechanism has
hence proved to be very popular and powerful in upholding the human rights of
marginalized or disenfranchised groups.
The
sexual and gender minority community of Bangladesh has also discovered this new
mechanism as a way to raise awareness for the violations of their human rights
on an international platform. In 2009, based on reports prepared by local
rights groups, Chile and the Czech Republic made three recommendations to the
Government of Bangladesh that, if implemented, would improve the legal status
of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in Bangladesh.
Two
of the recommendations were to decriminalise same-sex relationships by
abolishing Section 377 of the Bangladesh Penal Code, which is a remainder of
British colonialism. Another recommendation was to educate law enforcers and
judicial officers about LGBT issues, and to adopt further measures to ensure
the protection of LGBT persons against violence and abuse.
The
Government of Bangladesh rejected the first two recommendations, saying that
“Bangladesh is a society with strong traditional and cultural values. Same-sex
activity is not an acceptable norm to any community in the country. Indeed,
sexual orientation is not an issue in Bangladesh. There has been no concern
expressed by any quarter in the country on this.” The government, however,
accepted the recommendation of training law enforcers to protect sexual and
gender minorities.
When
Bangladesh comes under review for the second cycle in a few days, more specific
recommendations from UN member states are expected to ease the plight of LGBT
people. But, given the current political situation of the country, the issue
may be dumped way beneath the pile of other issues. That is why it is important
that the media, civil society and the community endorse the cause of sexual and
gender minorities.
Boys
of Bangladesh (BoB), the largest platform of self-identified gay men in
Bangladesh, have put forward a number of recommendations from the LGBT
community in the stakeholders’ report this year. One of the main
recommendations is to conduct a government survey about human rights violations
victimizing LGBT persons in the country. Such a survey is necessary to learn
more about the discrimination, stigma and violence LGBT persons face in
Bangladesh, and to develop strategies to address these human rights violations.
The
government already has an extensive HIV/AIDS program under the Ministry of Health,
which also includes men who have sex with men (MSM) and Hijras. Hence, the
government’s claim that sexual orientation is not an issue in the country is
only a way to brush aside the realities, and to avoid acknowledging human
rights violations of sexual and gender minorities.
BoB
thinks that it is time for the government to acknowledge the existence of this
clandestine but significant population, and to take appropriate measures to
address the violations of their human rights. After all, sexual and gender
minorities are part of every family, every society and are integral development
partners of the country.
The
writer is a human rights activist and a volunteer at Boys of Bangladesh (BoB),
a non-registered, non-funded, informal network of self-identified gay men in
Bangladesh.
Shame
and Guilt over being Homosexual
Do
you experience shame and guilt over being gay or homosexual? It's easy for me
to say, 'Stop, there's nothing to be ashamed about!" But it's a lot harder
to put into practice. The reason for this is that the seeds for shame and guilt
are usually sown over a period of many years, since we were very young. In the
United States, shame and guilt over being homosexual have their roots in
religious philosophy. Religious prejudices have heavily filtered into our legal
system, making gay sex illegal in many states and failing to protect gays in
most states.
These
societal beliefs and laws influence how we are raised by our parents, what our
schools teach us and how other people respond to us. Believe it or not, all
cultures do not share a negative view of homosexuals. Latin American countries,
the Philippines and Sweden are just a few examples of countries that have
tolerant laws and attitudes toward gays and lesbians. In general, societies
that believe that homosexuality is a born trait are more accepting than
societies that think it is a choice. Of course, we as homosexuals know it is
not a choice!
So
what are shame and guilt exactly? They are not quite the same. Shame is
experienced in reference to how other people perceive your actions; guilt is
experienced in reference to how you perceive your actions. Is it possible to
experience one without the other? Yes, and it is also possible to experience
both at the same time. For instance, if you are a woman, you may feel
absolutely no guilt whatsoever when you are intimate with your girlfriend. You
are joyful, at peace and fulfilled. However, when it comes time to tell another
about the experience, you may have a sense of deep shame. Conversely, you may experience
guilt when you are together and shame when you tell someone else.
Try
to figure out what your feelings are, when you feel them and what triggers
these feelings. Ask yourself some hard questions. Do these feelings arise from
learned religious convictions? Did my parents teach me these things? When was
the first time you heard anti-gay sentiments and what were your feeling then?
Then
do a reality check. If you have been an active homosexual you know the truth of
what you do, how you feel about your partner and the relationship that you
have. Unfortunately, when you examine reality you will discover that the people
that wrote the laws, taught you and influenced your thought have no idea what
they are talking about. They developed all those prejudices and perspectives,
laws and mores, based on fear, poorly interpreted ideology and ignorant
judgment. All of these negative beliefs have been developed without any
scientific basis or with respect to modern psychiatric insight and findings.
It
takes a long time to overcome feelings of shame and guilt. Talking about it is
extremely important and may help you get perspective on the subject. You may
consider joining a more accepting church or synagogue if religion is a problem.
For instance, Unitarians and Reformed Jews are examples of religion sects that
do not discriminate against gays and lesbians. Overcoming shame and guilt will
go a long way toward helping you come out successfully, accept yourself for who
you are and have a healthy relationship with your partner.
Where
does Bangladesh stand on homosexuality issue?
Bangladesh
is one of 75 countries that currently have laws criminalising homosexuality. In
Bangladesh, the highest punishment for "unnatural intercourses" is
life imprisonment, but lesser jail terms of up to 10 years in prison and fines
might also be handed out under the existing law. According to the Section 377
of the penal code, voluntary carnal intercourse against “the order of nature
with any man, woman or animal” is punishable with imprisonment for life or with
imprisonment which may extend to ten years and fines.
This
phrase is interpreted to mean all forms of sexual activity other than
heterosexual penile-vaginal intercourse. Penetration is sufficient to
constitute the carnal intercourse necessary to the offence described, the
Section 377 also explains. Talking to the Dhaka Tribune, Supreme Court lawyer
Jyotirmoy Barua said being gay or lesbian was punishable under that section in
Bangladesh. Even though a small number of gay rights organisations and
activists in Bangladesh were raising their voice to establish rights for the
LGBT community, none of them has so far engaged in a legal fight to recognise
the status of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people in the
country, said Jyotirmoy.
Of
the 75 countries that criminalise homosexuality, most are located in Asia and
Africa, while more than half are commonwealth countries. On the other side of
the coin, nineteen countries – most of them located in North America, South
America and Western Europe – recognise same-sex marriage and grant most LGBT
rights to its citizens. In December 2008, Bangladesh was one of 59 countries
that signed a statement opposing LGBT rights at the United Nations General
Assembly. However, in January 2014, the Bangladesh government granted hijras,
who are neither male nor female, official recognition as a separate gender. The
move was made to ensure all hijras get priority for education and other rights.
In South Asia, the only case of legal fight challenging the criminalization of
homosexuality took place in India.
In
2001, an NGO there fought a legal battle challenging the constitutionality of
Section 377 of the India Penal Code, which has similarity with the section 377
of the penal code of Bangladesh, but it was finally turned down by the Indian
Supreme Court. According to Amnesty International, human rights abuses based on
sexual orientation or gender can include violation of the rights of the child;
the infliction of torture and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment; arbitrary
detention on grounds of identity or beliefs; the restriction of freedom of
association; and the denial of the basic rights of due process.
Some
examples of such abuses include execution by the state; denial of employment,
housing or health services; loss of custody of children; denial of asylum; rape
and otherwise torture in detention; threats for campaigning for LGBT human
rights and regular subjection to verbal abuse, says Amnesty International. Source:
Dhaka Tribune
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